| Norman Wales Almost immediately after his decisive victory over Harold and the Saxon army, William of Normandy set about establishing a strong, centralized kingdom in England. To help govern Wales, he set up powerful, semi-independent earldoms on the borders -- at Hereford, Shrewsbury, and Chester. From these heavily fortified bases, military zones we call the Marches, the Norman "Marcher Lords" made their influence felt not only in their own territories but also over the border, completely colonizing Gwent by 1087 and much of the rest of Southeast Wales by 1100. |
Norman Castles soon dotted much of the Welsh countryside -- it is hardly possible to find a
settlement of any size where they were not built. Even today, their massive piles dominate
such centres of urban settlement as Cardigan, Pembroke, Brecon, Cardiff, Caerphilly and
many others. In each lordship, the Norman earl reigned as a minor king, usurping the powers
previously enjoyed by the native Welsh rulers.
In mountainous, forbidding Northwest Wales, however, Norman castles were scarce; under a
few dynamic leaders, much of the area was gradually recovered from Norman rule. Thanks to
the heroic efforts of such Welsh rulers as Owain Gwynedd and Madog ap Maredudd,
Gwynedd and Powys became re-established as major political units enjoying Welsh law. Even
the coming of the Normans to the rest of Wales did not spell all gloom and doom. Though the
newcomers seem to have despised the Saxons whom they had so easily subdued, they had
much more respect for the Welsh, whose Cymric language was probably much more
intelligible to them than that of the barbaric English.
settlement of any size where they were not built. Even today, their massive piles dominate
such centres of urban settlement as Cardigan, Pembroke, Brecon, Cardiff, Caerphilly and
many others. In each lordship, the Norman earl reigned as a minor king, usurping the powers
previously enjoyed by the native Welsh rulers.
In mountainous, forbidding Northwest Wales, however, Norman castles were scarce; under a
few dynamic leaders, much of the area was gradually recovered from Norman rule. Thanks to
the heroic efforts of such Welsh rulers as Owain Gwynedd and Madog ap Maredudd,
Gwynedd and Powys became re-established as major political units enjoying Welsh law. Even
the coming of the Normans to the rest of Wales did not spell all gloom and doom. Though the
newcomers seem to have despised the Saxons whom they had so easily subdued, they had
much more respect for the Welsh, whose Cymric language was probably much more
intelligible to them than that of the barbaric English.
While the Saxon language was quickly abolished from law and government in England, to be
replaced by Latin or Norman French, the Welsh language flourished west of Offa's Dyke as a
medium of both institutions.
It was in south Wales that the Norman presence was most felt, as their many strongholds
testify.
The production of literature in Norman Wales flourished in favourable political conditions. In
the year 1200, Llywelyn ap Iorwerth, the grandson of Owain Gwynedd, became ruler of the
kingdom of Gwynedd, and under his strong and determined leadership, Wales was once more
united as a single political unit. In 1204, King John of England, whose daughter Joan he
married, recognized him. King John's troubles with his barons, and the needless, wasteful
wars on the continent, in which he lost Normandy, meant that Llywelyn was ultimately
successful in resisting English influence in Wales, and he received homage from the other
Welsh princes. At a conference held at Aberdyfi in 1216 he was recognized as their nominal
leader, a true Prince of Wales.
Known as Llywelyn Fawr (Llywelyn the Great), he himself paid his respects to the new
English king Henry III at John's death in 1216.
But Henry III was no King John; he was determined to show who was master in Wales, and
despite all Llywelyn`s achievements, after his death, the struggle began anew, quarrels
between his two sons Dafydd and Gruffudd undoing practically all that their father had
accomplished.
The Welsh were for all intents and purposes now leaderless. Once again, despite their bravery
and prowess in battle, their armies had to yield to superior forces. In 1247, at the Treaty of
Woodstock, East Gwynedd was ceded to King Henry. Then, in 1254 to rub in his victory, the
English king granted control of all the Crown lands in Wales to his young son, Prince Edward.
replaced by Latin or Norman French, the Welsh language flourished west of Offa's Dyke as a
medium of both institutions.
It was in south Wales that the Norman presence was most felt, as their many strongholds
testify.
The production of literature in Norman Wales flourished in favourable political conditions. In
the year 1200, Llywelyn ap Iorwerth, the grandson of Owain Gwynedd, became ruler of the
kingdom of Gwynedd, and under his strong and determined leadership, Wales was once more
united as a single political unit. In 1204, King John of England, whose daughter Joan he
married, recognized him. King John's troubles with his barons, and the needless, wasteful
wars on the continent, in which he lost Normandy, meant that Llywelyn was ultimately
successful in resisting English influence in Wales, and he received homage from the other
Welsh princes. At a conference held at Aberdyfi in 1216 he was recognized as their nominal
leader, a true Prince of Wales.
Known as Llywelyn Fawr (Llywelyn the Great), he himself paid his respects to the new
English king Henry III at John's death in 1216.
But Henry III was no King John; he was determined to show who was master in Wales, and
despite all Llywelyn`s achievements, after his death, the struggle began anew, quarrels
between his two sons Dafydd and Gruffudd undoing practically all that their father had
accomplished.
The Welsh were for all intents and purposes now leaderless. Once again, despite their bravery
and prowess in battle, their armies had to yield to superior forces. In 1247, at the Treaty of
Woodstock, East Gwynedd was ceded to King Henry. Then, in 1254 to rub in his victory, the
English king granted control of all the Crown lands in Wales to his young son, Prince Edward.
It was up to another Llywelyn, Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, the grandson of ap Iorwerth, to restore
the situation. Through military conquest, after imprisoning his brothers and taking the
kingdom of Gwynedd for himself, Llywelyn was able to re-unite much of his country in order
to assert his claim to be called Prince of Wales. Henry III accorded him the title officially in
1267 at the Treaty of Montgomery, recognizing the Welsh leader's claim to the three major
kingdoms of Gwynedd, Powys, and Deheubarth.
It seemed, for a short time at least, that the dream of the Welsh people had been realized --
they had their own prince, they governed their own territories, under their own laws and were
able to conduct their own affairs in their own language free from English influence.
The accession to the English throne of Edward I in 1272 completely reversed the tide of
affairs. The struggle had to begin anew.
Edward I (left) was determined to rule a united island of Britain under his kingship, and this
meant he had ultimately to conquer Wales and Scotland.
King Edward took a huge army into Wales to assert his might. He was greatly helped by
further family squabbles between Prince Llywelyn and many of the minor princes who resisted
his authority.
After heavy defeats in the field and lacking any significant support, Llywelyn`s great
achievement at Montgomery was completely negated. At the Treaty of Aberconwy in 1277,
he was forced to accept humiliating terms and to give up most of his recently acquired lands,
keeping only Gwynedd west of the Conwy River.
Edward followed his successes by building English strongholds around the perimeter of what
remained of Llywelyn`s possessions. Strong, easily defended, forbidding castles were erected
at the strategic points of Flint, Rhuddlan, Aberystwyth and Builth,
Without having much of a choice and hoping for better fortune in the future, Llywelyn simply
waited for better circumstances, but the harsh methods used by Edward to control the
conquered principality were soon to produce a major revolt.
An entry in "Brut y Tywysogion" reads: "The gentlefolk of Wales, despoiled of their liberty
and their rights, came to Llywelyn ap Gruffudd and revealed to him with tears their grievous
bondage to the English; and they made known to him that they preferred to be slain in war for
their liberty than to suffer themselves to be unrighteously trampled upon by foreigners."
At first, the Welsh leader enjoyed a period of success: the castles of Builth, Aberystwyth and
Ruthin fell into his hands, and a large English force was utterly destroyed in the Menai Straits
in Gwynedd.
It was a mere chance encounter that broke the spirit of his enemy and effectively ended the
Welsh dream.
Separated from the main body of his army, Llywelyn found himself in a minor skirmish in
which, an English knight unaware of the Welsh prince’s identity killed him. Upon
discovery, Llywelyn`s head was sent to London for display as that of a traitor.
Edwardian Conquest
After Llywelyn`s death, the struggle continued fitfully under his brother Dafydd, now calling
himself Prince of Wales. Despite their being united by multiple grievances, however, lack of
the needed resources to conduct a long campaign brought the stubborn resistance of the
Welsh to an inevitable end. Edward, euphoric at the death of Llywelyn, was determined to
"check the impetuous rashness of the Welsh, to punish their presumption and to wage war
against them to their extermination." Unable to command more than a remnant of those who
had flocked to the banner of his elder brother, Dafydd was quickly captured, executed as a
traitor in London, and the King of England was now free to do with Wales as he wished.
In 1294, the Statute of Rhuddlan confirmed Edward's plans regarding the governing of Wales
(apart from the Marches, left more or less as quasi-independent earldoms as rewards for their
help in disposing of the Welsh problem). The statute created the counties of Anglesey,
Caernarfon and Merioneth, to be governed by the Justice of North Wales; Flint, to be placed
under the Justice of Chester and the counties of Carmarthen and Cardigan to be left under
the Justice of South Wales
The status of the conquered nation seemed permanently confirmed when, in 1301, King
Edward of England made Lord Edward his son (who had been born at Caernarfon Castle),
Prince of Wales and Count of Chester. Ever since that date, these titles have been
automatically conferred upon the first-born son of the English monarch.
Following his successes in Wales, signified by the Statute of Rhuddlan, sometimes referred to
as The Statute of Wales, Edward embarked on his second massive castle-building program.
He created such world-heritage sites as Caernarfon, Conwy, Harlech, and Beaumaris (below)
in addition to the not so well known (or visited) earlier structures at Flint and Rhuddlan.
Below the huge, forbidding castle walls, new English boroughs were created, and English
traders were invited to settle, By rule of their new invaders, the Welsh were forbidden to
inhabit such "boroughs" or to carry arms within their walls (some English border cities such as
Chester and Hereford still have laws on the books proscribing the activities of the Welsh).
With the help of the architect Master James of St. George, and with what must have seemed
like limitless resources in manpower and materials, Edward showed his determination to place
a stranglehold on the people of Wales, who were hemmed on all sides: the struggle seemed
lost forever.
The struggle did not die out completely, but occasional rebellions were easily crushed; it was
not until the death of Edward III and the arrival of Owain Glyndwr (Shakespeare's Owen
Glendower), that any Welsh leader felt confident enough to challenge their English overlords.
Rebellion
When the long-awaited revolt finally materialized, Owain Glyndwr was ready to lead it. His
banner was the Red Dragon, the old symbol of victory of Briton over the Saxon. His revolt
was not unforeseen; the way had been prepared not only by the men of literature, but also by
earlier uprisings begun by Madog ap Llywelyn and by Owain Lawgoch.
Madog ap Llywelyn, calling himself Prince of Wales, had actually begun the revolt against
English rule in 1294, only a dozen years after the death of Llywelyn Gruffudd. Though his
efforts did not gain enough support to succeed, they brought a harsh response from King
Edward in the form of humiliating and punitive ordinances further restricting the civil rights
and economic and social opportunities of the Welsh.
It wasn't long before Llywelyn Bren, Lord of Senghenydd, led a second rebellion, aided by
some of the more prominent Marcher Lords in 1316. Prior to the arrival of Glyndwr, it was
Owain Lawgoch (Owain ap Thomas: Owain Red Hand ) who had the greatest and most
lasting influence upon Welsh aspirations for independence from England.
Hailed as a brave and skillful soldier, Owain Lawgoch fought for the King of France against
the English. He was hailed by Welsh poets as a deliverer, but he never arrived with his
promised army to reclaim his native country despite his having taken the Isle of Guernsey on
his way from Harfleur in France. He was betrayed and killed in 1378, but his legend lived on in
the hearts of the Welsh whose prophetic poetry even compared his life to that of the
legendary Arthur.
It was this popular prophetic tradition, uniting with the social unrest and racial tension that
opened the door for Owain Glyndwr, Lord of Glyndyfrdwy (the Valley of the Dee). He seized
his opportunity in 1400 after being crowned Prince of Wales by a small group of supporters
and who subsequently felt confident enough to defy Henry IV's many attempts to dislodge him.
It soon seemed as if the long-awaited dream of independence was fast becoming a reality.
Three royal expeditions against Glyndwr had completely failed. He held Harlech and
Aberystwyth in the West, had extended his influence as far as Glamorgan and Gwent in the
South and East, and was receiving support from Ireland and Scotland. He had also formed an
alliance with France, been recognized by the leading Welsh bishops, and had summoned
parliaments at various towns in Wales including Machynlleth where he was crowned as Prince
of Wales.
Then the dream died.
Henry Percy, (Hotspur) was killed at the Battle of Shrewsbury, and the increasing boldness
and military skills of Henry's son, the English prince of Wales and later King Henry V, began
to turn the tide against Glyndwr.his French allies could not sustain their support; they
withdrew their forces from Wales.
Owain's other main ally, the Scottish king, was taken prisoner by the English. Saddest of all,
like so many of his predecessors, Glyndwr was betrayed at home. It is not too comforting for
Welsh people of today to read that one of the staunchest allies of the English king and enemy
of Glyndwr was a man of Brecon, Dafydd Gam (later killed at Agincourt, fighting for the
English).
A sixth expedition into Wales undertaken by Prince Henry retook much of the land captured
by Owain, including many strategic castles. Edmund Mortimer was killed at the siege of
Harlech (right) in 1409. The boroughs, with their large populations, had remained English, and
by the end of 1409, the Welsh rebellion had dwindled down to a series of guerilla raids led by
the mysterious figure of Owain, whose wife and two daughters had been captured at Harlech
and taken to London as prisoners.
The English response was predictable: again the imposition of harsh, punitive measures were
enacted against any signs of further resistance to their rule. The Welsh people were forced to
pay large subsidies; they were prohibited from acquiring land east of Offa's Dyke or even
within the boundaries of the English boroughs in Wales.
Owain Glyndwr simply vanished from sight. According to an anonymous writer in 1415," Very
many say that he [Owain Glyndwr] died; the seers say that he did not." ("Annals of Owain
Glyndwr") There has been much speculation as to his fate and much guessing as to where he
ended his final days and was laid to rest.
the situation. Through military conquest, after imprisoning his brothers and taking the
kingdom of Gwynedd for himself, Llywelyn was able to re-unite much of his country in order
to assert his claim to be called Prince of Wales. Henry III accorded him the title officially in
1267 at the Treaty of Montgomery, recognizing the Welsh leader's claim to the three major
kingdoms of Gwynedd, Powys, and Deheubarth.
It seemed, for a short time at least, that the dream of the Welsh people had been realized --
they had their own prince, they governed their own territories, under their own laws and were
able to conduct their own affairs in their own language free from English influence.
The accession to the English throne of Edward I in 1272 completely reversed the tide of
affairs. The struggle had to begin anew.
Edward I (left) was determined to rule a united island of Britain under his kingship, and this
meant he had ultimately to conquer Wales and Scotland.
King Edward took a huge army into Wales to assert his might. He was greatly helped by
further family squabbles between Prince Llywelyn and many of the minor princes who resisted
his authority.
After heavy defeats in the field and lacking any significant support, Llywelyn`s great
achievement at Montgomery was completely negated. At the Treaty of Aberconwy in 1277,
he was forced to accept humiliating terms and to give up most of his recently acquired lands,
keeping only Gwynedd west of the Conwy River.
Edward followed his successes by building English strongholds around the perimeter of what
remained of Llywelyn`s possessions. Strong, easily defended, forbidding castles were erected
at the strategic points of Flint, Rhuddlan, Aberystwyth and Builth,
Without having much of a choice and hoping for better fortune in the future, Llywelyn simply
waited for better circumstances, but the harsh methods used by Edward to control the
conquered principality were soon to produce a major revolt.
An entry in "Brut y Tywysogion" reads: "The gentlefolk of Wales, despoiled of their liberty
and their rights, came to Llywelyn ap Gruffudd and revealed to him with tears their grievous
bondage to the English; and they made known to him that they preferred to be slain in war for
their liberty than to suffer themselves to be unrighteously trampled upon by foreigners."
At first, the Welsh leader enjoyed a period of success: the castles of Builth, Aberystwyth and
Ruthin fell into his hands, and a large English force was utterly destroyed in the Menai Straits
in Gwynedd.
It was a mere chance encounter that broke the spirit of his enemy and effectively ended the
Welsh dream.
Separated from the main body of his army, Llywelyn found himself in a minor skirmish in
which, an English knight unaware of the Welsh prince’s identity killed him. Upon
discovery, Llywelyn`s head was sent to London for display as that of a traitor.
Edwardian Conquest
After Llywelyn`s death, the struggle continued fitfully under his brother Dafydd, now calling
himself Prince of Wales. Despite their being united by multiple grievances, however, lack of
the needed resources to conduct a long campaign brought the stubborn resistance of the
Welsh to an inevitable end. Edward, euphoric at the death of Llywelyn, was determined to
"check the impetuous rashness of the Welsh, to punish their presumption and to wage war
against them to their extermination." Unable to command more than a remnant of those who
had flocked to the banner of his elder brother, Dafydd was quickly captured, executed as a
traitor in London, and the King of England was now free to do with Wales as he wished.
In 1294, the Statute of Rhuddlan confirmed Edward's plans regarding the governing of Wales
(apart from the Marches, left more or less as quasi-independent earldoms as rewards for their
help in disposing of the Welsh problem). The statute created the counties of Anglesey,
Caernarfon and Merioneth, to be governed by the Justice of North Wales; Flint, to be placed
under the Justice of Chester and the counties of Carmarthen and Cardigan to be left under
the Justice of South Wales
The status of the conquered nation seemed permanently confirmed when, in 1301, King
Edward of England made Lord Edward his son (who had been born at Caernarfon Castle),
Prince of Wales and Count of Chester. Ever since that date, these titles have been
automatically conferred upon the first-born son of the English monarch.
Following his successes in Wales, signified by the Statute of Rhuddlan, sometimes referred to
as The Statute of Wales, Edward embarked on his second massive castle-building program.
He created such world-heritage sites as Caernarfon, Conwy, Harlech, and Beaumaris (below)
in addition to the not so well known (or visited) earlier structures at Flint and Rhuddlan.
Below the huge, forbidding castle walls, new English boroughs were created, and English
traders were invited to settle, By rule of their new invaders, the Welsh were forbidden to
inhabit such "boroughs" or to carry arms within their walls (some English border cities such as
Chester and Hereford still have laws on the books proscribing the activities of the Welsh).
With the help of the architect Master James of St. George, and with what must have seemed
like limitless resources in manpower and materials, Edward showed his determination to place
a stranglehold on the people of Wales, who were hemmed on all sides: the struggle seemed
lost forever.
The struggle did not die out completely, but occasional rebellions were easily crushed; it was
not until the death of Edward III and the arrival of Owain Glyndwr (Shakespeare's Owen
Glendower), that any Welsh leader felt confident enough to challenge their English overlords.
Rebellion
When the long-awaited revolt finally materialized, Owain Glyndwr was ready to lead it. His
banner was the Red Dragon, the old symbol of victory of Briton over the Saxon. His revolt
was not unforeseen; the way had been prepared not only by the men of literature, but also by
earlier uprisings begun by Madog ap Llywelyn and by Owain Lawgoch.
Madog ap Llywelyn, calling himself Prince of Wales, had actually begun the revolt against
English rule in 1294, only a dozen years after the death of Llywelyn Gruffudd. Though his
efforts did not gain enough support to succeed, they brought a harsh response from King
Edward in the form of humiliating and punitive ordinances further restricting the civil rights
and economic and social opportunities of the Welsh.
It wasn't long before Llywelyn Bren, Lord of Senghenydd, led a second rebellion, aided by
some of the more prominent Marcher Lords in 1316. Prior to the arrival of Glyndwr, it was
Owain Lawgoch (Owain ap Thomas: Owain Red Hand ) who had the greatest and most
lasting influence upon Welsh aspirations for independence from England.
Hailed as a brave and skillful soldier, Owain Lawgoch fought for the King of France against
the English. He was hailed by Welsh poets as a deliverer, but he never arrived with his
promised army to reclaim his native country despite his having taken the Isle of Guernsey on
his way from Harfleur in France. He was betrayed and killed in 1378, but his legend lived on in
the hearts of the Welsh whose prophetic poetry even compared his life to that of the
legendary Arthur.
It was this popular prophetic tradition, uniting with the social unrest and racial tension that
opened the door for Owain Glyndwr, Lord of Glyndyfrdwy (the Valley of the Dee). He seized
his opportunity in 1400 after being crowned Prince of Wales by a small group of supporters
and who subsequently felt confident enough to defy Henry IV's many attempts to dislodge him.
It soon seemed as if the long-awaited dream of independence was fast becoming a reality.
Three royal expeditions against Glyndwr had completely failed. He held Harlech and
Aberystwyth in the West, had extended his influence as far as Glamorgan and Gwent in the
South and East, and was receiving support from Ireland and Scotland. He had also formed an
alliance with France, been recognized by the leading Welsh bishops, and had summoned
parliaments at various towns in Wales including Machynlleth where he was crowned as Prince
of Wales.
Then the dream died.
Henry Percy, (Hotspur) was killed at the Battle of Shrewsbury, and the increasing boldness
and military skills of Henry's son, the English prince of Wales and later King Henry V, began
to turn the tide against Glyndwr.his French allies could not sustain their support; they
withdrew their forces from Wales.
Owain's other main ally, the Scottish king, was taken prisoner by the English. Saddest of all,
like so many of his predecessors, Glyndwr was betrayed at home. It is not too comforting for
Welsh people of today to read that one of the staunchest allies of the English king and enemy
of Glyndwr was a man of Brecon, Dafydd Gam (later killed at Agincourt, fighting for the
English).
A sixth expedition into Wales undertaken by Prince Henry retook much of the land captured
by Owain, including many strategic castles. Edmund Mortimer was killed at the siege of
Harlech (right) in 1409. The boroughs, with their large populations, had remained English, and
by the end of 1409, the Welsh rebellion had dwindled down to a series of guerilla raids led by
the mysterious figure of Owain, whose wife and two daughters had been captured at Harlech
and taken to London as prisoners.
The English response was predictable: again the imposition of harsh, punitive measures were
enacted against any signs of further resistance to their rule. The Welsh people were forced to
pay large subsidies; they were prohibited from acquiring land east of Offa's Dyke or even
within the boundaries of the English boroughs in Wales.
Owain Glyndwr simply vanished from sight. According to an anonymous writer in 1415," Very
many say that he [Owain Glyndwr] died; the seers say that he did not." ("Annals of Owain
Glyndwr") There has been much speculation as to his fate and much guessing as to where he
ended his final days and was laid to rest.
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